OBJECTIVE: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Methicillin-resistant coagulase negative staphylococci (MRCNS) are important cause of infections worldwide. Vancomycin and other glycopeptide antibiotics are mainstay of therapy for infections caused by MRSA and MRCNS. High prevalence of methicillin resistant staphylococci strains led to increased use of vancomycin. This situation caused to reduction of glycopeptide susceptibility in methicillin-resistant staphylococci. Treatment options of infections due to MRSA with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin are limited. Tigecycline should be take into consideration as an antimicobial therapeutic alternative for infecitons caused by MRSA and/or MRCNS. The aim of this study was to determine in vitro antimicrobial activity of tigecycline against methicillin-resistant staphylococci strains isolated from various clinical specimens.
METHODS: Staphylococcus strains isolated at the Microbiology Laboratory of Konya Education and Research Hospital in between January and December in 2010. The isolated strains were identified by using both conventional methods and fully automated bacteria identification and susceptibility system (Phoenix 100, BD, Sparks, USA). Methicillin resistance was determined and evaluated according to Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) instrucions by using disc diffusion method (oxacillin 1 μg and cefoxitin 30 μg discs) Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of tigecycline for isolated strains were detected with E-test method (bio-Merieux Marcy l’Etoile, France).
RESULTS: Of all the eighty five methicillin-resistant staphylococci strains 35 (41%) were identified as Staphylococcus aureus and 50 (59%) coagulase negative staphylococci. MIC values of tigecycline for the 35 MRSA isolates were MIC50: 0.094 μg/ml, MIC90: 0.5 μg/ml) and for the 50 MRCNS isolates were MIC50: 0.047 μg/ml, MIC90: 0.25 μg/ml. All isolates (100%) were found to be sensitive to tigecycline.
CONCLUSION: Results of this study showed that tigecycline was effective in vitro antimicrobial activity against both MRSA and MRCNS isolates. Tigecycline may be preferred as a last choice in the treatment of resistant infections due to the MRSA and MRCNS that alternative antibiotics were all resistant.

OBJECTIVE: Usnic acid extracted from Squamarina lentigera was tested for antimicrobial activities against seven bacteria including Bacillus megaterium, B. subtilis, Enterococcus faecalis (RSKK 508), Escherichia coli (ATCC 35218), Proteus mirabilis (Pasteur Ens. 235), Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and usnic acid concentrations of this lichen species was determined.
METHODS: 0.05 g of thalli of S. lentigera was added into 10 mL acetone and left for exraction at room temparature for 1 h. We used agar diffision method for screeening antimicrobial activity of usnic acid in this lichen species. In addition, the quantitative analysis of usnic acid in this lichen species was achieved by using HPLC. Identification of peaks in chromatograms of lichen extract is achieved by comparison of retention times with that of standart usnic acid.
RESULTS: The usnic acid extracts of S. lentigera were effectively active lichen extracts, and showed the highest inhibition effect on B. megaterium and B. subtilis. When the inhibition zones obtained from S. lentigera was compared with that of standard antibiotic, E. coli seems to be more susceptible to the lichen extract. Acetone extract of examined lichen species inhibited the growth of all tested Gram positive bacteria, with the exception of S. aureus. B. subtilis seems to be sensitive to the acetone extracts of examined lichen species. The solvent controls did not show any activities against the bacteria. The amounts of usnic acid in the acetone extracts of S. lentigera were determined as 2.47%.
CONCLUSION: Our results demonstrating significant antimicrobial effects of S. lentigera, which are a contribution to the literature. This might explain the correlation between usnic acid concentration and antimicrobial activity. Results show an increase of antimicrobial acitivities by the increase of the amount of usnic acid concentration. The present study is the first paper on usnic acid concentration and antimicrobial activity of S. lentigera, which could be attracting for medicinal or pharmacological products.

OBJECTIVE: In this study, it was aimed to evaluate calf minced meat and chiken drumsticks samples purchased from different supermarkets in Ankara, Turkey for the presence of coagulase positive staphylococci (CPS) and coagulase negative staphylococci (CNS) and to determine their biofilm production and DNase activity.
METHODS: S. aureus and CNS, isolated from 15 minced meat and 15 chicken drumstick samples, were analyzed by conventional biochemical tests and API ID 32 Staph (Bio Merieux SA, Marcy-I’Etoile, France) identification kits to identify for genus and species of these isolates. Biofilm formation of isolates that was investigated by using Congo Red agar method. DNaz activity of these isolates were evaluated on DNase agar.
RESULTS: Total of 56 isolates of Staphylococcus spp. which consist of 6 (10.7 %) S. aureus and 50 (89.3 %) CNS were found from minced meat samples. A total of 41 CNS isolates isolated from chicken samples whereas, S. aureus were not isolated from these samples. All of S. aureus (100 %) and 58 % of CNS isolates from minced meat and 70.7 % of CNS isolates from chicken samples were positive for DNase activity, respectively. In this study, % 50 of S. aureus and % 18 of CNS from minced and 41.5 % of CNS isolates from chicken samples produced biofilm, respectively.
CONCLUSION: These results suggests the contamination of meat and chicken samples by Staphylococcus spp. indicates poor personnel hygiene and cross contamination during the production process. In this study, we showed that a large proportion of isolates had biofilm production and DNase activity. We suggest that contamination of staphylococci in different levels of the food chain should always be considered carefully. The food producers should be aware that controlling biofilm formation and DNase activity by staphylococci. Therefore, strict hygienic and preventative measures should be taken.

OBJECTIVE: Enteral nutritional products intended for the dietary management of patients and require to be used under medical supervision are specially processed or formulated. These products contain water soluble and fat soluble vitamins. The vitamin C (ascorbic acid) which is one of the water soluble vitamins is a important vitamin for many body functions. The aim of this study is to determine the applicability of UV detection (280 nm) method by the simply, specific and sensitive high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) for quantitative estimation of total vitamin C levels in enteral nutritional products.
METHODS: HPLC method was used for quantitative determination of total vitamin C in total 28 enteral nutritional products. The chromatographic system was done on a C18 column (250x4.60 mm-5 μ) with UV detection at 280 nm. Buffer containing hexanesulphonic acid sodium salt and methanol (98: 2) was used as the mobile phase at a flow rate of 1 mL/min. In statistical evaluation; the relationship between the values determined for enteral nutrition products and the values declared on the labels of the products was made according to independent samples T-Test.
RESULTS: HPLC method was used for quantitative determination of total vitamin C in enteral nutritional products. The values of total vitamin C of the products ranged from 3.9 to 52.20 mg/100 ml. In the statistical evaluation, it was observed that the values determined for enteral nutrition products were similar to the values declared on the labels of the products (p>0.05). The retention time of vitamin C was determined as ca. five min. It was also found that the detection of limit (LOD) is 0.005 mg/100 ml.
CONCLUSION: It was showed that HPLC-UV can be applied for the quantitative determination of total vitamin C levels in enteral nutritional products. This had the advantages of improved simplicity, sensitivity and shorter application times. Also, it is approved that the values of total vitamin C declared on the labels of these products are accurate.

OBJECTIVE: uberculosis microbiological laboratory diagnosis was firstly started in year 2009, in Microbiology Laboratory of Onsekiz Mart University Research and Education Hospital in Çanakkale. We aimed at this study to present our laboratory data and to evaluate the methods which were used for the diagnosis of micobacteria.
METHODS: Samples sent to our laboratory for tuberculosis culture were stained by Ehrlich-Ziehl-Neelsen (EZN) method and evaluated microscopically. After processing of samples, each sample was inoculated to Löwenstein-Jensen medium (LJ) and BACTEC MGIT 960 (Mycobacteria Growth Indicator Tube, Becton Dickinson, USA) liquid based medium. If suspected growth was detected, Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) typing was made and if requested antituberculosis drug susceptibility for streptomycin (STR), isoniazid (INH), rifampicin (RF) and ethambutol (ETM) tested. Samples from normally sterile body sites cultured directly, others were firstly decontaminated and concentrated.
RESULTS: During the study period 1.048 samples from 667 patient has been processed. Seventy eight samples (7.44%) from 54 patients were found positive by BACTEC MGIT system: 71 of them MTBC and seven of them were mycobacteria other than tuberculosis (MOTT). By LJ medium 64 MTBC and 4 MOTT strain, totally 68 mycobacterium were isolated. Mean time for detecting positive culture by MGIT 960 was 11.8 days (± 7.45 SD). With EZN stain, 49 samples were detected as acido resistant bacilli and only 42 (86%) of them were positive by culture. Antituberculosis drug susceptibilty was evaluated at isolates of 25 from 54 patients. A resistance to at least one of the drugs were detected in six isolates. It is found that five isolates were resistant to STR, three were resistant to INH and one was resistant to ETM. Three isolates were resistant to both STR and INH. Rifampicin resistance was not detected in MTBC.
CONCLUSION: With this study we presented first tuberculosis laboratory findings from our province, Çanakkale. Tuberculosis microbiological culture and antituberculosis susceptibility tests can be made using Bactec MGIT 960 system which is easier and faster than solid media culture. In tuberculosis diagnosis sensitivity of culture is higher than microscopical evaluation. It was concluded that although microscopic examination has low sensitivity, for early detection of tuberculosis both culture and staining should be used together for routine detection of tuberculosis.

OBJECTIVE: In this study, it is aimed to investigate the nasal carriage of Staphylococcus aureus and meticilin resistance amongst the workers of the Kütahya Province Directorate.
METHODS: For the identification of isolated strains were used conventional biochemical tests and for phenotyping antibiotic susceptibility tests.
RESULTS: A total of 597 people included in the study, of which 51 (8.54%) were determined as carriers. The distribution of carrier were found as (7.55%) are nurses, midwives and health officers; (9.42%) are health staff and the remaining (11.2%) are identified as doctors, respectively. Methicillin resistance has not been determined in the isolates tested. A resistance against the vancomycin has not been detected. As a result of the tests, it is observed that 100% of isolates are resistant to bacitracin, 90.19% to ceftazidime, 88.23% to penicillin G and 82.35% to ofloxacine and 82.35% nalidixic acid.
CONCLUSION: With this study, in determining the rate of carriage of S. aureus, amongst the employees in health sector the measures have to be taken against the noso-comial staphylococcus infections and by giving valuable information about the treatment methods a contribution will be made to the development of common protection and treatment methods against this microorganism.

It is a very rare medical condition that Urinary tract infection (UTI) caused by Salmonella species. Seven-year-old boy admitted to our hospital with complaint of lower abdominal pain, burning and pain during urination (dysuria), nausea and increased fever. The patient had normal vital signs but abdominal examination revealed bilateral suprapubic tenderness. In the laboratory, it was found the amount of hemoglobin 12.9 g/dL, red blood cell count 4.8 million/mm3, white blood cell count 11.800/mm3, platelet count 275.000/mm3, level of C-reactive protein 30.2 mg/L, serologically S. paratyphi A “O” antibody (1/160) and S. paratyphi A “H” antibody (1/320) positivity. Urine examination showed gross hematuria and leukocyte esterase was positive. Urine culture was performed and isolate obtained urine culture was identified with conventional methods. Result of urine culture was reported as Salmonella species and isolate was determined as Salmonella paratyphi A by using anti-sera during the advanced identification. Results of radiological imaging were found normal. The patient was diagnosed as acute hemorrhagic cystitis caused by S. paratyphi A
and received ceftriaxone treatment for seven days and had a full recovery. We conclude that in case of acute hemorrhagic cystitis, S. paratyphi A should be considered as causative agent in endemic areas.

The cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), as they are commonly named, comprise a diverse group of oxygenic photosynthetic bacteria that inhabit a wide range of aquatic and terrestrial environments, and display incredible morphological diversity. Cyanobacteria produce bioactive secondary metabolites, including alkaloids, polyketides and non-ribosomal peptides, some of which are potent toxins. The common occurrence of toxic cyanobacteria causes problems for health of animals and human. Cyanobacterial toxins or cyanotoxins are responsible diseases such as liver cancer, dermal contact irritations and gastroenteritis in humans. The cyanotoxins divide four major classes: the neurotoxins, hepatotoxins, cytotoxins, and dermatoxins. However, this toxins are quite variety. The biosynthesis pathways of the four major cyanotoxins: microcystin, saxitoxin, nodularin and cylindrospermopsin, have been interpreted as biochemical and genetical in the past decade. Microcystins have been implicated in several cases of animal and human intoxications. This review summarizes biosynthesis pathways of microcystin, chemistry, genetic and toxicology.